Although the Greek Cypriot side has accepted the federal solution to the Cyprus problem since 1977, understanding of what such a state structure entails remains limited

In light of the possible five-party meeting on the Cyprus issue, aspects of a potential solution plan are once again coming to the forefront. Information that has come to light in recent weeks regarding what the proposal the UN will put on the table might look like has reignited public debate on both sides regarding the structure of the statein the event of a settlement.

In this context, “Alpha on Sunday” will attempt in the coming weeks, starting today, to examine the issue “foundation for a solution to the Cyprus problem,” seeking to answer some of the most fundamental questions weighing on the people and their leaders. What is a unitary state, and how does it differ from a federal one? How many and which states are federations? Does the form of government influence the structure of the state? Can a unitary state like Cyprus have federal arrangements? What are the differences between a federation and a confederation? Are all federations the same? What is currently being discussed regarding the basis for a solution to the Cyprus problem? Is a bizonal, bicommunal federation really such an unheard-of concept? Are there any state structures similar to those being discussed for Cyprus?

The unitary state

The UN consists of 193 fully recognized member states, of which 168, or 87%, are unitary states. To summarize the academically accepted definitions, in a unitary state, the highest political, executive, and legislative authority rests with the central government, while its geographical regions are limited exclusively to local self-government powers. These powers can be granted only by the central government, while legislation is enacted solely by the central government and has direct, universal, and national effect throughout the entire territory. The form of government is not a defining element of a state’s structure.

Greece is a unitary state with a single parliament and a presidential parliamentary democracy, in which the head of state is elected through national elections for the country’s parliament. France, also a unitary state, has a hybrid system of semi-presidential parliamentary democracy with federal elements, in which the parliament is divided into an upper house (Senate) and a lower house (National Assembly), while executive power is shared between the president and the prime minister.

On the other hand, the United States, which is a classic example of a federal state, has adopted a presidential system. Germany, also a federal state, is a presidential parliamentary democracy similar to Greece, where the president has no executive power, with the prime minister—in Germany’s case, the chancellor—serving as head of state and holding executive power.

The federal state

A federal state, like a unitary one, maintains a single sovereignty, a single identity, and a single international legal personality, elements that are fundamental to the Greek Cypriot side’s objectives regarding the resolution of the Cyprus problem, as they ensure that the partition of the country is prevented. In a federal state, executive and legislative powers are not concentrated exclusively in the central government. In a manner prescribed by the state’s constitution, the central government delegates part of these powers to self-governing regions whose responsibilities are not limited to local self-government.

Depending on the country, its circumstances, and its history, these regions have different names, though the essence remains the same. In the U.S., they are called states; in Switzerland, cantons; in Germany they are called Länder, in Nepal they are provinces, in Canada they are provinces and territories, in Iraq they are regions and provinces, and in Belgium they are regions and communities.

Twenty-five UN member states—or 13% of the organization’s member states—are federal. The total global population living in federal states is approximately 3.82 billion, or 46% of the world’s population. The total land area of these states is 148.9 million square kilometers, or 48% of the world’s land area. In other words, while only one in eight countries is a federal state, federal states account for nearly half of the planet in terms of both land area and population.

These figures are not merely encyclopedic facts. They highlight some of the fundamental reasons why the decentralization of power was conceived. A telling example is India, which is a federal state with a population of nearly 1.5 billion people and 18 official languages. Other examples include Belgium and Switzerland, which also have heterogeneous indigenous populations with distinct ethnic differences. The federal structure has prevailed in countries that are either characterized by heterogeneous populations or consist of a union of different regions, such as Germany and the United States.

Just as not all unitary states are alike, federal systems also differ from country to country. Nevertheless, certain elements are common to all federations. The most emblematic similarity is the bicameral legislature—that is, the division of legislative power into two chambers, both at the central and regional levels. In the U.S., the Senate consists of one hundred members—two from each of the fifty states—to ensure their equal participation in the central government. The House of Representatives, on the other hand, ensures proportional representation of the states in the legislature, with each state having a number of representatives commensurate with its population. The state of New York, with a population of 20 million, is represented by two members in the Senate—the same number as the state of Arkansas, with a population of 3 million—and by a multiple of that number in the House of Representatives.

A fundamental principle is that the federal constitution defines the powers it delegates to the states, which in turn determine, through their own constitutions, how they are organized. The national constitution, as the document that defines the limits of regional powers, takes precedence over state constitutions. Precisely because the national constitution defines the limits of a region’s powers, this is where significant differences arise from one federation to another. The common feature of all federal states is the constitutional allocation of powers to the regions and the fact that neither region can take powers away from the other, nor can it arbitrarily assume additional powers for itself; furthermore, if disputes arise between the states or between a state and the federation, they are resolved by the supreme constitutional court.

The number of powers constitutionally allocated to the regions varies, but what matters is that sufficient powers are concentrated in the central government to ensure that the country functions as a single sovereign state. This means that powers such as international representation always remain with the central government; hence, no region of a federal state has its own ministry of foreign affairs. Defense, monetary policy, ensuring the unity of the internal market, the supreme judicial authority, citizenship, passports and immigration, customs, and foreign trade. There are, therefore, states where many powers are centralized, with the regions being tasked almost exclusively with their implementation, as in Germany, while in countries such as Switzerland, the regions have a high degree of autonomy across a wide range of responsibilities.

The example of Cyprus

Certain characteristic features of a federal state can also be found in unitary states. Since the federal structure of a state has its roots in disparities among the population or the regions that comprise it, federal arrangements in unitary states are not uncommon. A concrete example is the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus.

Given the country’s small size and the absence of such differences that would justify the devolution of powers from the central government to the regions, it was determined, on the one hand, that there was no reason to adopt the federal model for the Cypriot state. On the other hand, the ethnic differences among the island’s inhabitants made it necessary to include provisions in the constitution that either refer to federal states or recall the reasons for which the federal model was devised.

One such example is the community assemblies. Under the constitution, these assemblies are granted legislative powers over matters specific to each community, such as religion and education. It is for this reason that, based on the principle of necessity, the Ministry of Education was established—the only ministry where the Greek flag flies. Following the same philosophy—that is, ensuring the unity of the state by reducing potential sources of friction and strengthening checks and balances— the constitution stipulates that the Vice President of the state must be a Turkish Cypriot, as must the Deputy Attorney General, the Deputy Auditor General, and so on. 

The Confederation

There are two key characteristics that define confederations today. First, they do not constitute a single state, and second, there has not been a single one in the entire world for decades. The only example of a confederation today is the Sahel Confederation, which consists of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso, and it is not officially recognized because it was formed by illegitimate, coup-installed governments. The most recent example of a confederation was Senegambia, a short-lived confederation between Senegal and The Gambia, from 1982 to 1989.

Many federal states began as confederations, such as the United States and Switzerland, which to this day retains the term “confederation” in its official name, for historical rather than substantive reasons. A confederation is a loose union of independent, sovereign states that come together through an international treaty to formulate common policies on a range of issues. According to historical examples, the most common areas are defense, foreign policy, cross-border trade, and monetary policy, which were managed through joint intergovernmental bodies. It is noteworthy that all confederations of the past dissolved after the withdrawal of even a single member state, without their dissolution leading to the dissolution of the states that comprised them.

The differences between a confederation and a federation are subtle. A country can withdraw from a confederation while retaining its sovereignty, independence, and international status, a possibility not available to a federated region, from which withdrawal or secession is expressly prohibited. For a decision to be made within a confederation, unanimity is required, with member states retaining the right of veto, whereas in federal states, decisions are made by majority vote. Decisions in confederations affect the states, which must then proceed to amend their national legislation accordingly, whereas decisions in federal states at the central government level have direct, national application, affecting the state’s citizens directly.

In general, despite the common element of intergovernmental cooperation among different geographic regions on a range of issues, the similarities between a confederation and a federation end there. While a confederation consists of separate sovereign states, a federation is a union of geographic regions within a single state.